Religion_Christianity_Carnival

(from Latin adventus, "coming"), in the Christian church, a period of preparation for the celebration of the birth of Jesus Christ at Christmas and also of preparation for the Second Coming of Christ. It begins on the Sunday nearest to November 30 (St. Andrew's Day) and is the beginning of the church year. The date when the season was first observed is uncertain. Bishop Perpetuus of Tours (461-490) established a fast before Christmas that began on November 11 (St. Martin's Day), and the Council of Tours (567) mentioned an Advent season.

Advent originated as a period during which converts prepared themselves for baptism through instruction, prayer, fasting, and reflection, much like Lent. The length of Advent varied from three days to six weekssix weeks being approximately 40 days, the length of time that Jesus spent in the wilderness preparing for His ministry.

The general topic of Advent is the Second Coming of Jesus Christ. In the west during the Middle Ages, Advent became a time to prepare for the Second Coming, because in those days, many people were convinced that all the signs pointed to the imminent return of Christ. In time, Advent spread throughout the western Church and became fixed at its present length. Over the last fifty years, Advent has come to anticipate the Nativity as well. For many people today, especially retailers, Advent is just a ramp-up to Christmas. In most churches, the Bible readings and sermons during Advent include prophecies of the birth of Christ, but primarily concern the Second Coming, judgment, and eternal rewards for obedient Christians.

Carnival, the merrymaking and festivity that takes place in many Roman Catholic countries in the last days and hours of the pre-Lenten season. The derivation of the word is uncertain, though it possibly can be traced to the Medieval Latin carnem levare or carnelevarium, which means to take away or remove meat. This coincides with the fact that carnival is the final festivity before the commencement of the austere 40 days of Lent, during which Roman Catholics, in earlier times, abstained from eating meat. The historical origin of carnival is also obscure. It possibly has its roots in a primitive festival honouring the beginning of the new year and the rebirth of nature, though it is also possible that the beginnings of carnival in Italy may be linked to the pagan Saturnalian festival of ancient Rome.

The first day of the carnival season varies with both national and local traditions. Thus in Munich and Bavaria the carnival, or Fasching, begins on the feast of the Epiphany (January 6), while in Cologne or the Rhineland it begins on November 11 at 11:11 Am (11th month, day, hour, and minute). In France the celebration is restricted to Tuesday before Ash Wednesday (Shrove Tuesday) and to mi-carème, or the Thursday of the third week of Lent. More generally the commencement date is Quinquagesima Sunday, and the termination is Shrove Tuesday; though, in some parts of Spain, Ash Wednesday also is included in the carnival celebrations, an observance that stems from a time when Ash Wednesday was not an integral part of Lent.

In earlier times, Rome was most conspicuous as the centre of carnival activity, and the splendour and richness of the festivity that marked its observance there were scarcely surpassed elsewhere. In its long history, the carnival played a significant role in the development of the popular theatre, vernacular song, and folk dances.

In the United States the principal carnival celebration is in New Orleans, where the carnival season opens on Twelfth Night (January 6) and climaxes with the Mardi Gras season commencing 10 days before Shrove Tuesday. The French name Mardi Gras means Fat Tuesday, from the custom of using all the fats in the home before Lent. The most famous modern carnival, however, is perhaps that of Rio de Janeiro. Masked balls, elaborate costumes, parades, and various other festivities mark such celebrations.

Lent, in the Christian church, a period of penitential preparation for Easter. In Western churches it begins on Ash Wednesday, 61/2 weeks before Easter, and provides for a 40-day fast (Sundays are excluded), in imitation of Jesus Christ's fasting in the wilderness. In Eastern churches Lent begins on the Monday of the seventh week before Easter and ends on the Friday that is 9 days before Easter. This 40-day "Great Lent" includes Saturdays and Sundays as relaxed fast days.

Since apostolic times a period of preparation and fasting has been observed before the Easter festival. It was a time of preparation of candidates for baptism and a time of penance for sinners. In the early centuries fasting rules were strict, as they still are in Eastern churches. One meal a day was allowed in the evening, and meat, fish, eggs, and butter were forbidden. The Eastern church also restricts the use of wine, oil, and dairy products. In the West these fasting rules have gradually been relaxed. The strict law of fasting among Roman Catholics was dispensed during World War II, and only Ash Wednesday and Good Friday are now kept as Lenten fast days. However, the emphasis on penitential practice remains.

Fasting, abstinence from food or drink or both for ritualistic, mystical, ascetic, or other religious or ethical purposes. The abstention may be complete or partial, lengthy or of short duration. Fasting has been practiced from antiquity worldwide by the founders and followers of many religions, by culturally designated individuals (e.g., hunters or candidates for initiation rites), and by individuals or groups as an expression of protest against what they believe are violations of social, ethical, or political principles.

In the religions of ancient peoples and civilizations, fasting was a practice to prepare persons, especially priests and priestesses, to approach the deities. In the Hellenistic mystery religions (e.g., the healing cult of the god Asclepius), the gods were thought to reveal their divine teachings in dreams and visions only after a fast that required the total dedication of the devotees. Among the pre-Columbian peoples of Peru, fasting often was one of the requirements for penance after an individual had confessed sins before a priest. In many cultures the practice was considered a means to assuage an angered deity or to aid in resurrecting a deity who was believed to have died (e.g., a god of vegetation).

In the religions of traditional or preliterate peoples, fasting is often practiced before and during a vision quest (e.g., among the North American Indian peoples of the Great Plains and the Pacific Northwest). Among the Evenk (also called Evenki, formerly Tungus) of Siberia, shamans (religious personages thought to have the power to heal and to communicate psychically) often receive their initial visions not with a quest but rather after an unexplained illness; after the initial vision, however, they fast and train themselves to see further visions and to control spirits. Priestly societies among the Pueblo Indians of the American Southwest fast during retreats before major ceremonies connected with seasonal changes.

Fasting for special purposes or before or during special sacred times is a characteristic of the major religions of the world. In Jainism, for example, fasting according to certain prescribed rules and practicing certain types of meditation leads to trances that enable individuals to disassociate themselves from the world and reach a transcendent state. Buddhist monks of the Theravada school fast on certain holy days (uposatha) of the month. In China prior to 1949, it was customary to observe a fixed period of fasting and abstinence before the sacrifice during the night of the winter solstice, a time when the heavenly Yang (positive energy) principle was believed to begin its new cycle. In India, Hindu sadhus (holy men) are admired for their frequent personal fasts for various reasons.

Among the Western religions, only Zoroastrianism prohibits fasting, because of its belief that such a form of asceticism will not aid in strengthening the faithful in their struggle against evil. The other Western religions--Judaism, Christianity, and Islam--emphasize fasting during certain periods. Judaism, which developed many dietary laws and customs, observes several annual fast days, primarily on days of penitence (such as Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement) or mourning. Christianity, especially Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy, has observed a 40-day fast period during Lent, a spring period of penitence before Easter, and during Advent, a penitential period before Christmas. Among Roman Catholics the observance has been modified since the second Vatican Council (1962-65) to allow greater individual choice, with mandatory fasting only on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday during Lent. Protestant churches generally leave the decision to fast to individual church members. The month of Ramadan in Islam is a period of penitence and total fasting from dawn to dusk.

In addition to its role in religion, fasting may be used to express social and political views, particularly as a gesture of protest or solidarity. The classic example of this approach was set by Mahatma Gandhi, who, in the early 20th century, conducted a fast in prison to atone for the violent excesses of those of his followers who did not practice his teaching of ahimsa (nonviolence) against British rule in India. Gandhi later often fasted in pursuit of similar objectives, including the removal of disabilities imposed by the government on the untouchables. Fasting has frequently been practiced to protest against war and what are considered social evils and injustices, as in the fasts of the American black comedian Dick Gregory from the 1960s in protest against the violation of civil rights of American Indians and against U.S. military activity in Southeast Asia. In 1981, 10 Irish nationalists died in a Belfast prison during a hunger strike conducted to urge recognition of themselves and their associates as political prisoners.

Easter, Latin PASCHA, Greek PASCHA, principal festival of the Christian church year, celebrating the Resurrection of Jesus Christ on the third day after his Crucifixion. The origins of Easter date to the beginnings of Christianity, and it is probably the oldest Christian observance after the Sabbath (originally observed on Saturday, later on Sunday); the Sabbath subsequently came to be regarded as the weekly celebration of the Resurrection. The English name Easter is of uncertain origin; the Anglo-Saxon priest Venerable Bede in the 8th century derived it from the Anglo-Saxon spring goddess Eostre.

Western Christians celebrate Easter on the first Sunday after the full moon (the paschal moon) that occurs upon or next after the vernal equinox (taken as March 21). If the paschal moon, which is calculated from a system of golden numbers and epacts and does not necessarily coincide with the astronomical full moon, occurs on a Sunday, Easter day is the succeeding Sunday. Easter, therefore, can fall between March 22 and April 25. This rule was fixed after much controversy and uncertainty, which lasted in various parts of the church until the 8th century. In the Eastern Orthodox church, however, a slightly different calculation is followed, with the result that the Orthodox Easter, although sometimes coinciding with that of the West, can fall one, four, or five weeks later.

The festival of Easter occurs on a particular Sunday, but its importance is emphasized in the worship of the church by the long preparation of Lent; by Holy Week, with its solemn services; and by the following 50 days until Pentecost (Whitsunday), a period known as Eastertide, or Paschaltide. Easter is central to the whole Christian year; not only does the entire ecclesiastical calendar of movable feasts depend upon its date but the whole liturgical year of worship is arranged around it. In the liturgical texts the emphasis is laid on its being the Christian Passover (the time of redemption).

By the time that the Christian liturgy had begun to take shape (2nd century), the Sunday Eucharist was preceded by a vigil service of Scripture readings and psalms. In this must be seen the origin of the Easter Vigil service, one of the striking celebrations of Easter in both East and West; from being a weekly observance the vigil has turned into an annual one at Easter only. As it is now constituted in the Roman Catholic missal, this vigil consists of the blessing of the new fire (a practice introduced during the early Middle Ages); the lighting of the paschal candle; a service of lessons, called the prophecies; followed by the blessing of the font and baptisms and then the mass of Easter. A similar form is used in Lutheran and some Anglican churches. This pattern is quite primitive and, in its principal elements, can be traced to the 3rd-4th century. In the course of time the vigil in the West (but never in the East) came to be celebrated on Saturday evening, then on Saturday afternoon, and finally, by the end of the Middle Ages, on Saturday morning. In 1951 (optionally) and 1955 (obligatorily) throughout the Roman Catholic church, the Easter vigil was restored to the starting time of about 10:00 Pm, so that the first mass of Easter begins at midnight. Easter vigils in certain Protestant churches are similarly scheduled.

The connection of baptism with Easter is of early date. During the church's first centuries the whole of Lent was not only a time of penance but also the period during which the catechumens (persons to be baptized) were prepared for baptism, which was given only once a year, at Easter. For the six weeks preceding Easter the catechumens were instructed in the Christian faith, and the texts of the Lenten liturgy in the Roman Catholic missal still preserve clear indications of this practice. The catechumenate came to an end with the solemn baptisms of the Easter vigil. This is the explanation of the present practice of the long ceremony of blessing the font on Easter night and of the great emphasis on baptism and its meaning and the many allusions to it still present in the Easter services.

Among the Eastern Orthodox and Russian Orthodox churches, perhaps even greater emphasis is laid on the central position of Easter not only as an annual observance of the church year but as a centrepiece in the whole worship and spiritual life of the church. The vigil service is preceded by a procession outside the church representing a fruitless search for the body of Christ. Then comes the joyful announcement, "Christ is risen," followed by the Easter Eucharist. When the procession first leaves the church, there are no lights anywhere, but on its return hundreds of candles and coloured lamps are lighted to show the splendour of Christ's Resurrection.

In the Church of England the Book of Common Prayer provides special anthems to take the place of the Venite (Psalms 95) at matins. Lutheran hymnbooks, which contain orders of service, use special sentences at Easter. The Book of Common Order of the Church of Scotland includes prayers for Easter, and the Divine Worship of the Methodists has an order of worship for Easter morning, but the use of them is not compulsory.

In the Protestant churches, Easter Sunday observances are the culminating point of a series of services held during Holy Week, beginning with Palm Sunday. It is customary for the sacrament of Holy Communion to be administered during Holy Week, but the time of its observance varies. Many denominations have established the custom of celebrating Holy Communion on Maundy Thursday (the Thursday before Easter); others administer the sacrament on Easter morning some time before the regularly established hour of worship. Many Protestant churches hold joint interdenominational Good Friday services, prepared under the auspices of the local ministerial association. These services in many communities centre on the traditional seven last "words" (or sayings) of Christ and are conducted from 12:00 noon to 3:00 Pm with choirs and clergy of the participating denominations. This interdenominational pattern culminates in the Easter dawn service, which is of such interest in the United States that it commands wide television and radio coverage. The origin of the sunrise service is not known, but it would appear to be rooted in the Gospel narratives describing the Resurrection of Christ--e.g., John 20, "Now on the first day of the week, Mary Magdalene came to the tomb early, while it was still dark." Mingled with this biblical warrant is an association with the spring of the year and the idea of the new birth symbolized in nature's renewal of itself out of the death of winter.

Around the Christian observance of Easter as the climax of the liturgical drama of Holy Week and Good Friday, folk customs have collected, many of which have been handed down from the ancient ceremonial and symbolism of European and Middle Eastern pagan spring festivals brought into relation with the resurrection theme. These customs have taken a variety of forms, in which, for example, eggs, formerly forbidden to be eaten during Lent, have been prominent as symbols of new life and resurrection. The hare, the symbol of fertility in ancient Egypt, a role that was kept later in Europe, is not found in North America. Its place is taken by the Easter rabbit, the symbol of fertility and periodicity both human and lunar, accredited with laying eggs (often brightly coloured or decorated) in nests prepared for it at Easter or with hiding them away for children to find.



	Advent (from Latin adventus, "coming"), in the Christian church, a period of preparation for the celebration of the birth of Jesus Christ at Christmas and also of preparation for the Second Coming of Christ. It begins on the Sunday nearest to November 30 (St. Andrew's Day) and is the beginning of the church year. The date when the season was first observed is uncertain. Bishop Perpetuus of Tours (461-490) established a fast before Christmas that began on November 11 (St. Martin's Day), and the Council of Tours (567) mentioned an Advent season. Although a penitential season, Advent is no longer kept with the strictness of Lent, as it once was, and fasts are no longer required. In many countries it is marked by a variety of popular observances, such as the lighting of Advent candles. Advent originated as a period during which converts prepared themselves for baptism through instruction, prayer, fasting, and reflection, much like Lent. The length of Advent varied from three days to six weekssix weeks being approximately 40 days, the length of time that Jesus spent in the wilderness preparing for His ministry. The Western Church The general topic of Advent is the Second Coming of Jesus Christ. In the west during the Middle Ages, Advent became a time to prepare for the Second Coming, because in those days, many people were convinced that all the signs pointed to the imminent return of Christ. In time, Advent spread throughout the western Church and became fixed at its present length. Over the last fifty years, Advent has come to anticipate the Nativity as well. For many people today, especially retailers, Advent is just a ramp-up to Christmas. In most churches, the Bible readings and sermons during Advent include prophecies of the birth of Christ, but primarily concern the Second Coming, judgment, and eternal rewards for obedient Christians. Advent consists of the four Sundays preceding Christmas. If 24 December is a Sunday, it is the fourth Sunday in Advent until sundown, when the liturgical day begins, then it is Christmas Eve. The Eastern Church The eastern Church does not have a season of Advent, in the western sense. It retains the original forty-day period of fasting, prayer, and reflection. Roughly speaking, the western Church consists of Protestants, Catholics, and Anglicans. The eastern Church consists of the Orthodox churches, the Oriental churches, and the eastern-rite churches affiliated with the Roman Catholic Church. Carnival Carnival, the merrymaking and festivity that takes place in many Roman Catholic countries in the last days and hours of the pre-Lenten season. The derivation of the word is uncertain, though it possibly can be traced to the Medieval Latin carnem levare or carnelevarium, which means to take away or remove meat. This coincides with the fact that carnival is the final festivity before the commencement of the austere 40 days of Lent, during which Roman Catholics, in earlier times, abstained from eating meat. The historical origin of carnival is also obscure. It possibly has its roots in a primitive festival honouring the beginning of the new year and the rebirth of nature, though it is also possible that the beginnings of carnival in Italy may be linked to the pagan Saturnalian festival of ancient Rome. The first day of the carnival season varies with both national and local traditions. Thus in Munich and Bavaria the carnival, or Fasching, begins on the feast of the Epiphany (January 6), while in Cologne or the Rhineland it begins on November 11 at 11:11 Am (11th month, day, hour, and minute). In France the celebration is restricted to Tuesday before Ash Wednesday (Shrove Tuesday) and to mi-carème, or the Thursday of the third week of Lent. More generally the commencement date is Quinquagesima Sunday, and the termination is Shrove Tuesday; though, in some parts of Spain, Ash Wednesday also is included in the carnival celebrations, an observance that stems from a time when Ash Wednesday was not an integral part of Lent. In earlier times, Rome was most conspicuous as the centre of carnival activity, and the splendour and richness of the festivity that marked its observance there were scarcely surpassed elsewhere. In its long history, the carnival played a significant role in the development of the popular theatre, vernacular song, and folk dances. In the United States the principal carnival celebration is in New Orleans, where the carnival season opens on Twelfth Night (January 6) and climaxes with the Mardi Gras season commencing 10 days before Shrove Tuesday. The French name Mardi Gras means Fat Tuesday, from the custom of using all the fats in the home before Lent. The most famous modern carnival, however, is perhaps that of Rio de Janeiro. Masked balls, elaborate costumes, parades, and various other festivities mark such celebrations. Lent Lent, in the Christian church, a period of penitential preparation for Easter. In Western churches it begins on Ash Wednesday, 61/2 weeks before Easter, and provides for a 40-day fast (Sundays are excluded), in imitation of Jesus Christ's fasting in the wilderness. In Eastern churches Lent begins on the Monday of the seventh week before Easter and ends on the Friday that is 9 days before Easter. This 40-day "Great Lent" includes Saturdays and Sundays as relaxed fast days. Since apostolic times a period of preparation and fasting has been observed before the Easter festival. It was a time of preparation of candidates for baptism and a time of penance for sinners. In the early centuries fasting rules were strict, as they still are in Eastern churches. One meal a day was allowed in the evening, and meat, fish, eggs, and butter were forbidden. The Eastern church also restricts the use of wine, oil, and dairy products. In the West these fasting rules have gradually been relaxed. The strict law of fasting among Roman Catholics was dispensed during World War II, and only Ash Wednesday and Good Friday are now kept as Lenten fast days. However, the emphasis on penitential practice remains. In the Anglican churches The Book of Common Prayer prescribes that Lent be observed with fasting. In Lutheran and many other Protestant churches Lent is observed with various services and practices. Fasting Fasting, abstinence from food or drink or both for ritualistic, mystical, ascetic, or other religious or ethical purposes. The abstention may be complete or partial, lengthy or of short duration. Fasting has been practiced from antiquity worldwide by the founders and followers of many religions, by culturally designated individuals (e.g., hunters or candidates for initiation rites), and by individuals or groups as an expression of protest against what they believe are violations of social, ethical, or political principles. In the religions of ancient peoples and civilizations, fasting was a practice to prepare persons, especially priests and priestesses, to approach the deities. In the Hellenistic mystery religions (e.g., the healing cult of the god Asclepius), the gods were thought to reveal their divine teachings in dreams and visions only after a fast that required the total dedication of the devotees. Among the pre-Columbian peoples of Peru, fasting often was one of the requirements for penance after an individual had confessed sins before a priest. In many cultures the practice was considered a means to assuage an angered deity or to aid in resurrecting a deity who was believed to have died (e.g., a god of vegetation). In the religions of traditional or preliterate peoples, fasting is often practiced before and during a vision quest (e.g., among the North American Indian peoples of the Great Plains and the Pacific Northwest). Among the Evenk (also called Evenki, formerly Tungus) of Siberia, shamans (religious personages thought to have the power to heal and to communicate psychically) often receive their initial visions not with a quest but rather after an unexplained illness; after the initial vision, however, they fast and train themselves to see further visions and to control spirits. Priestly societies among the Pueblo Indians of the American Southwest fast during retreats before major ceremonies connected with seasonal changes. Fasting for special purposes or before or during special sacred times is a characteristic of the major religions of the world. In Jainism, for example, fasting according to certain prescribed rules and practicing certain types of meditation leads to trances that enable individuals to disassociate themselves from the world and reach a transcendent state. Buddhist monks of the Theravada school fast on certain holy days (uposatha) of the month. In China prior to 1949, it was customary to observe a fixed period of fasting and abstinence before the sacrifice during the night of the winter solstice, a time when the heavenly Yang (positive energy) principle was believed to begin its new cycle. In India, Hindu sadhus (holy men) are admired for their frequent personal fasts for various reasons. Among the Western religions, only Zoroastrianism prohibits fasting, because of its belief that such a form of asceticism will not aid in strengthening the faithful in their struggle against evil. The other Western religions--Judaism, Christianity, and Islam--emphasize fasting during certain periods. Judaism, which developed many dietary laws and customs, observes several annual fast days, primarily on days of penitence (such as Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement) or mourning. Christianity, especially Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy, has observed a 40-day fast period during Lent, a spring period of penitence before Easter, and during Advent, a penitential period before Christmas. Among Roman Catholics the observance has been modified since the second Vatican Council (1962-65) to allow greater individual choice, with mandatory fasting only on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday during Lent. Protestant churches generally leave the decision to fast to individual church members. The month of Ramadan in Islam is a period of penitence and total fasting from dawn to dusk. In addition to its role in religion, fasting may be used to express social and political views, particularly as a gesture of protest or solidarity. The classic example of this approach was set by Mahatma Gandhi, who, in the early 20th century, conducted a fast in prison to atone for the violent excesses of those of his followers who did not practice his teaching of ahimsa (nonviolence) against British rule in India. Gandhi later often fasted in pursuit of similar objectives, including the removal of disabilities imposed by the government on the untouchables. Fasting has frequently been practiced to protest against war and what are considered social evils and injustices, as in the fasts of the American black comedian Dick Gregory from the 1960s in protest against the violation of civil rights of American Indians and against U.S. military activity in Southeast Asia. In 1981, 10 Irish nationalists died in a Belfast prison during a hunger strike conducted to urge recognition of themselves and their associates as political prisoners. Easter Easter, Latin PASCHA, Greek PASCHA, principal festival of the Christian church year, celebrating the Resurrection of Jesus Christ on the third day after his Crucifixion. The origins of Easter date to the beginnings of Christianity, and it is probably the oldest Christian observance after the Sabbath (originally observed on Saturday, later on Sunday); the Sabbath subsequently came to be regarded as the weekly celebration of the Resurrection. The English name Easter is of uncertain origin; the Anglo-Saxon priest Venerable Bede in the 8th century derived it from the Anglo-Saxon spring goddess Eostre. Date of Easter. Western Christians celebrate Easter on the first Sunday after the full moon (the paschal moon) that occurs upon or next after the vernal equinox (taken as March 21). If the paschal moon, which is calculated from a system of golden numbers and epacts and does not necessarily coincide with the astronomical full moon, occurs on a Sunday, Easter day is the succeeding Sunday. Easter, therefore, can fall between March 22 and April 25. This rule was fixed after much controversy and uncertainty, which lasted in various parts of the church until the 8th century. In the Eastern Orthodox church, however, a slightly different calculation is followed, with the result that the Orthodox Easter, although sometimes coinciding with that of the West, can fall one, four, or five weeks later. In the 20th century, the possibility of a fixed date for Easter has been discussed and supported among some Christians; adoption would depend on agreement being reached among the various churches. The second Sunday in April has been proposed. Religious observances. The festival of Easter occurs on a particular Sunday, but its importance is emphasized in the worship of the church by the long preparation of Lent; by Holy Week, with its solemn services; and by the following 50 days until Pentecost (Whitsunday), a period known as Eastertide, or Paschaltide. Easter is central to the whole Christian year; not only does the entire ecclesiastical calendar of movable feasts depend upon its date but the whole liturgical year of worship is arranged around it. In the liturgical texts the emphasis is laid on its being the Christian Passover (the time of redemption). By the time that the Christian liturgy had begun to take shape (2nd century), the Sunday Eucharist was preceded by a vigil service of Scripture readings and psalms. In this must be seen the origin of the Easter Vigil service, one of the striking celebrations of Easter in both East and West; from being a weekly observance the vigil has turned into an annual one at Easter only. As it is now constituted in the Roman Catholic missal, this vigil consists of the blessing of the new fire (a practice introduced during the early Middle Ages); the lighting of the paschal candle; a service of lessons, called the prophecies; followed by the blessing of the font and baptisms and then the mass of Easter. A similar form is used in Lutheran and some Anglican churches. This pattern is quite primitive and, in its principal elements, can be traced to the 3rd-4th century. In the course of time the vigil in the West (but never in the East) came to be celebrated on Saturday evening, then on Saturday afternoon, and finally, by the end of the Middle Ages, on Saturday morning. In 1951 (optionally) and 1955 (obligatorily) throughout the Roman Catholic church, the Easter vigil was restored to the starting time of about 10:00 Pm, so that the first mass of Easter begins at midnight. Easter vigils in certain Protestant churches are similarly scheduled. The connection of baptism with Easter is of early date. During the church's first centuries the whole of Lent was not only a time of penance but also the period during which the catechumens (persons to be baptized) were prepared for baptism, which was given only once a year, at Easter. For the six weeks preceding Easter the catechumens were instructed in the Christian faith, and the texts of the Lenten liturgy in the Roman Catholic missal still preserve clear indications of this practice. The catechumenate came to an end with the solemn baptisms of the Easter vigil. This is the explanation of the present practice of the long ceremony of blessing the font on Easter night and of the great emphasis on baptism and its meaning and the many allusions to it still present in the Easter services. Among the Eastern Orthodox and Russian Orthodox churches, perhaps even greater emphasis is laid on the central position of Easter not only as an annual observance of the church year but as a centrepiece in the whole worship and spiritual life of the church. The vigil service is preceded by a procession outside the church representing a fruitless search for the body of Christ. Then comes the joyful announcement, "Christ is risen," followed by the Easter Eucharist. When the procession first leaves the church, there are no lights anywhere, but on its return hundreds of candles and coloured lamps are lighted to show the splendour of Christ's Resurrection. In the Church of England the Book of Common Prayer provides special anthems to take the place of the Venite (Psalms 95) at matins. Lutheran hymnbooks, which contain orders of service, use special sentences at Easter. The Book of Common Order of the Church of Scotland includes prayers for Easter, and the Divine Worship of the Methodists has an order of worship for Easter morning, but the use of them is not compulsory. In the Protestant churches, Easter Sunday observances are the culminating point of a series of services held during Holy Week, beginning with Palm Sunday. It is customary for the sacrament of Holy Communion to be administered during Holy Week, but the time of its observance varies. Many denominations have established the custom of celebrating Holy Communion on Maundy Thursday (the Thursday before Easter); others administer the sacrament on Easter morning some time before the regularly established hour of worship. Many Protestant churches hold joint interdenominational Good Friday services, prepared under the auspices of the local ministerial association. These services in many communities centre on the traditional seven last "words" (or sayings) of Christ and are conducted from 12:00 noon to 3:00 Pm with choirs and clergy of the participating denominations. This interdenominational pattern culminates in the Easter dawn service, which is of such interest in the United States that it commands wide television and radio coverage. The origin of the sunrise service is not known, but it would appear to be rooted in the Gospel narratives describing the Resurrection of Christ--e.g., John 20, "Now on the first day of the week, Mary Magdalene came to the tomb early, while it was still dark." Mingled with this biblical warrant is an association with the spring of the year and the idea of the new birth symbolized in nature's renewal of itself out of the death of winter. Popular customs. Around the Christian observance of Easter as the climax of the liturgical drama of Holy Week and Good Friday, folk customs have collected, many of which have been handed down from the ancient ceremonial and symbolism of European and Middle Eastern pagan spring festivals brought into relation with the resurrection theme. These customs have taken a variety of forms, in which, for example, eggs, formerly forbidden to be eaten during Lent, have been prominent as symbols of new life and resurrection. The hare, the symbol of fertility in ancient Egypt, a role that was kept later in Europe, is not found in North America. Its place is taken by the Easter rabbit, the symbol of fertility and periodicity both human and lunar, accredited with laying eggs (often brightly coloured or decorated) in nests prepared for it at Easter or with hiding them away for children to find.